Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors: DISCUSSION

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This study presents baseline data of college-aged populations on body weight by gender, ethnicity and gender-ethnicity subgroups. It addresses the question whether there are ethnic differences in anthropometric measurements and body composition (body fat, lean and water), and their association with CHD risk factors. We observed statistically significant differences between males and females with males being heavier and taller, which was expected. Black non-Hispanic females were taller and heavier than white non-Hispanic and Hispanic females. Males had higher BMIs than females. More females were classified in the underweight category than males. Black non-Hispanic females were significantly (p<0.017) more likely than white non-Hispanic females to be overweight. Our data are consistent with observations from the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey (NCHRBS), indicating that black non-Hispanic students (33.5%) are significantly more likely than white non-Hispanic (19.5%) and Hispanic (20.8%) students to be overweight. Black non-Hispanic female students (35.8%) are significantly more likely than white non-Hispanic (18.5%) and Hispanic (16.8%) female students to be overweight. Black non-Hispanic male students (30.3%) were significantly more likely than white non-Hispanic male (19.5%) students to be overweight.

Overweight among adults is increasing in the United States. Between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2002, the average weight of non-Hispanic black or African-American women increased approximately 13 lbs with the largest increase in the 20-39-year age group (more than 16 lbs). In 1999-2002, 73% of Mexican-American adults were overweight and 33% were obese. Obesity (Generic Xenical is a slimming tablet for those who are obese and who find it hard to lose weight) increased between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2002, from 24% to 27% for men and from 35% to 38%) for women.37 Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1996-2001) examined dynamic patterns of change in obesity among white, black, Hispanic and Asian U.S. teens as they transitioned to young adulthood and found that obesity (Hoodia tablets is their food, water, and medicine) incidence was especially high in non-Hispanic black (18.4%) females relative to white females. Data from the 2000 National Health Interview Survey, Sample Adult File examined overall and sex-specific disparities in body mass for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and Cuban Americans and found significantly higher body masses for non-Hispanic blacks, Puerto Ricans, and Mexican Americans compared to non-Hispanic whites. Among very obese individuals, these relationships were more pronounced for females.

Our data demonstrate a strong positive association between BMI and CHDRPS in males and females and in white non-Hispanics and Hispanics. Furthermore, examination of ethnicities by gender indicates significant positive correlations between BMI and CHDRPS in white non-Hispanic and Hispanic males and in Hispanic females. Higher CHDRPS were correlated with higher BMI levels in males and females, and for white non-Hispanics and Hispanics, for white non-Hispanic males and Hispanic males and for Hispanic females. A strong positive association was found between relative weight and the incidence of CHD. In an extensive study by the American Cancer Society, self-reported weight was correlated positively with mortality from CHD, approximately doubling the risk in persons more than 40% above average weight. Data from the NHANES III (1988-1994) examined 486 non-Hispanic blacks, 409 Mexican Americans and 772 non-Hispanic whites, aged 25-99 years and found that 20% of non-Hispanic whites had zero CVD risk factors vs. 18% of Mexican Americans and 13% of non-Hispanic blacks. Non-Hispanic blacks were twice as likely as the other groups to have four or five risk factors. generic levitra online

Our data showed that males had higher mean total body water than did females, and black non-Hispanics had significantly higher percentages of total body fat and lower percentages of total body water than white non-Hispanics. Our data are consistent with observations from the NHANES III (1988-1994), where males had higher mean total body water than did females regardless of age or racial-ethnic status. Mean total body water increased from the adolescent years to mid-adulthood. Also, females had higher mean total body fat and percentage body fat estimates than males at each age group. Our data showed that the higher percentages of body fat in males and females, in white non-Hispanics and Hispanics, and in white non-Hispanic and Hispanic males, and Hispanic females were associated with higher CHDRPS. Moreover, our data demonstrated a strong inverse association between percentages of body water, lean and lean/fat ratio and CHDRPS among all subjects, males and females, and among ethnic groups, especially Hispanics. This indicated that the higher the percentages of body lean, water and lean/fat ratios in male and females, in white non-Hispanics and Hispanics, in white non-Hispanic and Hispanic males, and in Hispanic females, the lower the CHDRPS. Several studies have suggested that besides the overall quantity of excess body fat, body fat distribution may have important effects on the risk of CHD. Our study and current data did not address the issue of fat distribution. The high prevalence of being overweight among blacks and Mexican Americans, espe¬cially among women, may reflect cultural values and beliefs that limit the motivation for or the effectiveness of weight control.

One of the national health objectives for 2010 is to reduce the prevalence of obesity (Canadian Acomplia is used in the treatment of obesity and related conditions) among adults to <15%. However, the NHANES 1999-2002 data for persons age >20 years suggest an increase in the proportion of obese adults in the United States.

LIMITATIONS
The study population was formed among a modest number of conveniently selected sample of college students. The results may not be generalized to all college-age nor to other populations. The findings of this study will require confirmation in a population of randomly selected young adults outside of a university setting. Another limitation is the use of self-reported and not-measured weight. This may cause subjects to underestimate their actual weight. In our study, significant difference were found in the underweight category, with 8.9% (n=8) of females being underweight compared to 1.1% of males. Out of the eight females, three were black non-Hispanic females and three were Hispanic females. A study looking at body dissatisfaction among white and African-American male and female college students found that most (83%) underweight (BMI <19) African-American females perceived themselves as underweight, while only about one-half of underweight (56%) white females perceived themselves as underweight. Another study where BMI was calculated for each student using self-reported heights and weights found that 50% of the students who were rated underweight on the basis of their BMIs classified themselves as overweight. BMIs based on self-reported height and weight values therefore underestimate the prevalence of overweight in adolescent populations. Considering the stress level of college students, our study found significant differences among ethnicities with regard to behavioral styles, with females, especially black non-Hispanic females, reported being never calm as compared with Hispanic females. Although it was not statistically significant, females were moderately more active compared with males. This could be a possible factor in an underweight female. generic tadalafil 20mg

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, mild-to-moderate overweight was associated with elevation in CHDRPS. The findings are especially important because they add insight into the course and development of ethnic differences in CHD risk factors in young adults. The high prevalence of overweight in black non-Hispanics and Hispanics, especially women, may reflect cul tural values and beliefs that limit the motivation for or the effectiveness of weight control. Whether or not these college-aged subjects develop CHD later in life will depend on the degree to which both excess of body fat and elevated CHD risk factors track into adulthood. Our results support a high priority for weight control in young adulthood in efforts to prevent CVD.