EXTRAINTESTINAL COMPLICATIONS - Crohn’s Disease

The extraintestinal manifestations of IBD can be divided into complications of gastrointestinal inflammation or diseases associated with IBD. The latter occur most often with “colitis” but can occur in either UC or CD when the colon is inflamed.

Nutritional and metabolic abnormalities occur with chronic disease, inadequate intake of calories, maldigestion, and malabsorption. Blood and protein loss contribute to iron deficiency anemia and hypoalbuminemia. Deficiencies of calcium, magnesium, or zinc are most often noted with small intestinal CD in the presence of active inflammation or extensive surgical resections. Calcium deficiency may be aggravated by milk-free diets or vitamin D deficiency. Deficiency of folic acid can be secondary to inadequate intake, proximal small bowel disease, or competitive inhibition of folate absorption by sulfasalazine. Treatments for these nutritional deficiencies require appropriate diagnosis, treatment of the underlying inflammation, and enteral or parenteral repletion. Deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E, and K) are most often produced by ileal disease or resection. Low vitamin D levels can aggravate metabolic bone disease and calcium malabsorption. Vitamin B12 deficiency can be avoided by regular replacement intramuscular injections.

Read the rest of this entry »

Crohn’s Disease - CANCER

Cancer of the colon is a long-term complication of UC. Its development depends on two factors: the extent of mucosal involvement (pancolitis greater than left-sided colitis) and the duration of disease. Severity of the initial attack, subsequent course, and specific medical therapies are not related to the cancer risk. Colonic adenocarcinomas may occur in patients who have had quiescent UC for decades. Indeed, these may be the patients at highest risk. In Europe, where colectomy is performed earlier, the risk of cancer is reduced.

 
TABLE 104-2 - CANCER IN ULCERATIVE COLITISRisk factors
Extent of colon involved
Duration of disease after 10 years
Surveillance
Begin after 10 years
Increase frequency of surveillance with increased duration of disease
Warning
Indefinite dysplasia: requires follow-up 3-6 months and/or confirmation by experienced pathologist
Surgical indication
Confirmed dysplasia, or dysplasia-associated lesion or mass (DALM)

Read the rest of this entry »

Crohn’s Disease - COMPLICATIONS

INTESTINAL COMPLICATIONS

Rectal bleeding is a common manifestation of both UC and CD. In UC the superficial inflammation induces capillary hemorrhage, manifested as bright red coating of stool or blood-tinged mucopus. In severe UC the bleeding can be more prominent and on rare occasions is profuse. Iron deficiency anemia is a common secondary association due to the chronic blood loss. In CD, hemorrhage may be profuse as a result of deeper inflammation and ulceration into larger vessels. Recurrent bleeding occurs in a small subset of patients with CD and is rarely the single indication for surgery.

Toxic megacolon, once thought to occur only with UC, also occurs in CD and infectious colitis. Toxic megacolon develops in seriously ill individuals when transmural inflammation extends into the muscular layer, thinning the intestinal wall. The entire colon, or segments of the colon, can dilate as a result of disruption of the neural and muscular elements that maintain normal tone. Dilatation of the diameter of the colon on a plain abdominal radiograph to > 6 cm, associated with clinical symptoms of increasing abdominal pain, distention, rebound tenderness, and signs of fever, tachycardia, and dehydration, indicates the condition. Even without prominent dilatation, similar symptoms and signs are sufficient to diagnose severe colitis with an identical risk of perforation and the hazard of peritonitis. Precipitating circumstances include severe colitis, instrumentation with barium studies or endoscopic procedures in severe inflammation, potassium depletion, anticholinergic medications, or narcotics, which are thought to reduce neuromuscular activity of the gut. Associated laboratory findings include leukocytosis, hypokalemia, anemia, and hypoalbuminemia.

Read the rest of this entry »

Crohn’s Disease - CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

The symptoms and signs of CD also are determined by the site and extent of inflammation. Gastroduodenal CD mimics peptic ulcer disease, with nausea, vomiting, and epigastric pain. Patients with small intestinal involvement have abdominal cramping, diarrhea, and abdominal tenderness. The pain and tenderness of CD are due to transmural inflammation. Transmural inflammation leads to fibrosis and narrowing of the intestinal lumen, which produce symptoms of obstruction: nausea, vomiting, waves of abdominal pain, and a reduced output of stool on physical examination. This is appreciated as a thickened, tender loop of bowel or an abdominal mass, if the mesentery is involved. Patients with colonic CD present with abdominal pain, cramping or localized pain, rectal bleeding, and diarrhea.

Read the rest of this entry »

PATHOLOGY OF CROHN’S DISEASE

CD involves any segment or combination of segments of the alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus. Unlike UC, microscopic changes often are identified distant from sites of macroscopic disease. These focal changes and the tendency of CD to recur after segmental resection suggest that subtle changes of CD exist throughout the alimentary tract. Most commonly the distal ileum and right colon are macroscopically inflamed (ileocolitis). The colon is involved, exclusively, in about 20% of patients (Crohn’s colitis or granulomatous colitis); approximately 15 to 20% have gross disease limited to the small bowel (ileitis or regional enteritis). The stomach or duodenum is involved in < 10% of patients and usually in association with more distal disease. Disease of the anal canal, including deep fissures, fistulas, and prominent “hemorrhoidal” skin tags, are common and distinguish CD confined to the colon from UC. Unlike UC, the mucosa in CD is involved in a focal, discontinuous manner, both microscopically and macroscopically. Rarely, lesions indistinguishable from those of CD occur in the skin or urogenital mucosal surfaces (miliary CD).

Read the rest of this entry »

Crohn’s Disease - PATHOGENESIS

The absence of an etiologic factor leaves a gap in our understanding of the pathogenesis of IBD. Although a number of potential factors may influence the initiation of the inflammatory response, a popular view is that a defect exists in the “down-regulation”

TABLE 104-1 — EPIDEMIOLOGY OF INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE

of immune events (see Part XIX), allowing persistent amplification of the tissue-damaging process. The inflammatory reaction in IBD closely mimics infectious enterocolitis with the exception of the failure to halt progressive tissue destruction. Subtle differences exist between the immunologic findings of UC and CD, such as the production of immunoglobulin heavy-chain allotypes or neutrophil-cytoplasmic antibodies; however, pathognomonic findings to classify these disorders remain elusive. Nosology is currently based on descriptive clinical, endoscopic, and histologic criteria, and misclassification often is recognized as the clinicopathologic process evolves over time. When the diagnosis changes, it is almost always from UC to CD and virtually never the converse.

Read the rest of this entry »

Crohn’s Disease - EPIDEMIOLOGY

CD occurs among all age groups but have a peak incidence in the second and third decades. CD incidence has risen over the past 20 years; CD has an incidence and prevalence rates of 5 per 100,000. The combined prevalence of the two diseases is approximately 100 per 100,000 population. CD are seen most commonly in Northern Europe and North America and in relatives of European immigrants in the cities of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) included Crohn’s disease and Crohn’s disease. IBD is rare in Central America, South America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Although CD can be seen in all ethnic groups, there is an increased prevalence in Jews who have immigrated from Northern Europe. This Jewish predisposition is not seen in Sephardic (Mediterranean or Middle-Eastern) Jews. Although less common in the nonwhite population, more cases are being recognized in black, Hispanic, and Asian immigrants to western cities.

Read the rest of this entry »